Adolescents In The Catcher in the Rye - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 601 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/05/28 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Catcher in The Rye Essay Did you like this example? Bad decisions, phoniness, and depression all relate back to the fact that children are getting stripped of their innocence and pushed into adulthood. The concept of losing innocence is one that J.D. Salingerrs Catcher in the Rye really digs into. One of the reasons that The Catcher in the Rye is such a classic is because it really pushed the boundaries and made many bold, unapologetic claims about society and the human condition. Society pressures vulnerable youth to adapt to the status quo in transitioning into adulthood by creating fear of straying from societal norms. Teens that are pushed into adulthood too early are more likely to make poor decisions that will affect them in the future. The developmental task for adolescents is the creation of their individual identities and the initiation of the roles that affect the rest if their lives. This quote demonstrates that the period of adolescence is responsible for not only the development of ones individual identity, but important for society. Therefore, it is important to understand the significance of young people for the growth and well being of the global population. Though teens are important for the future of humanity, pushing them into adulthood too early can lead to long term consequences. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Adolescents In The Catcher in the Rye" essay for you Create order Adults think with the prefrontal cortex, the part responsible for oners thinking and decision making, while teens process information with the amygdala, which is the brainrs emotional part. But due to the fact that the frontal lobe in an a teenrs brain is not fully formed, many of the adolescents, especially Holden in Catcher in the Rye, exhibit poor decision making skills. For instance, Holden got in a fight with his roomate when it was obvious that he would lose. All I know is I got up from the bed, like I was going down to the can or something, and then I tried to sock him, with all my might, right smack in the toothbrush, so it would split his goddamn throat open. He ended up getting punched back even harder by his roomate. Some people would categorize this type of decision making as teen angst, while others would categorize this type of behavior as a side effect of depression. I personally think of Holdenrs situation as a mix of both. Similarly, many teens share his mix o f depression and teen angst that makes him such a relatable character. Holden is a prime example of a teen who doesnt support the regular parth and misses his innocence. Adolescents are forces to adapt and accept the harsh realities of adulthood which leads to depression and regret. Due to the immense fear of straying from societal norms, teens are also pressured to act a certain way based on class, gender, and ethnicity. Holden felt a lot of pressure to conform to the status quo: What you should do is not be yellow at all. If youre supposed to sock somebody in the jaw and you sort of felt like doing it, you should do it. Yellow is a motif in the book that represent cowardliness and weakness. Holden is reflecting the need to be manly and not feeling so. Young boys, even today, are pressured to usually be manly and not express their emotions as much as females can. But girls have just as much or more pressure than guys do. According to a psychological research study conducted in the University of Los Angeles, there is a 2:1 ratio of female to male dep ression observed into adulthood. This could be because many people are forced to accept the harsh realities of human nature and oppression.

Choosing a Major Accounting at ULM Essay - 750 Words

The One That Does It All When choosing a major there are many options to choose from and many variables that can affect your decision. When looking at ULMs list of majors the first one alphabetically would be accounting. Everyone knows that is not a way to predetermine a major, but it is a coincidence that accounting is a very sound major. Accounting is for anyone with a business mind who likes to be around figures mainly dealing with money. Accounting can be fastidious at times, but with hard work very rewarding. The accounting major, part of the business college at ULM, is a good choice for students because it is a strong major at ULM and leads to fulfilling careers. The accounting major at ULM is part of the college of†¦show more content†¦All the professors have at least one professional degree in accounting. Jordan Baugh, a sophomore accounting major at ULM says, â€Å"The professors are extremely magnificent. They know what theyre talking about. They are ver y good at understanding. They teach and make sure you understand, instead of just putting up powerpoints or whatever.† He goes on to tell how they are willing to work one on one and get everyone involved to give their students the competitive edge in the workforce. Several classes can also be taken online. There are also minors here at ULM that are closely related to accounting. One example of this is Computer Information Systems (CIS). CIS is the technological part of accounting which is the information system of business. Jordan Baugh also highly stressed, â€Å"Always take an accounting major over a general business major. The opportunities and options from a business major are much narrower.† The strengths of ULMs accounting major can be summed up as high quality, many in-demand opportunities, high job placement rate, faculty/student relationship, and great alumni relations (McEacharn). The greatest part of being an accounting major is the opportunities af ter graduation. If a CPA is obtained, a greater salary will follow, and the possibility of your own business. If a regular accountant is the route taken, only a bachelor’s degree is needed. The typical workday of an accountant primarily involves bookkeeping. They keep track ofShow MoreRelatedNokias Human Resources System144007 Words   |  577 PagesAccelerated filer n Non ­accelerated filer n Smaller reporting company n (Do not check if a smaller reporting company) Indicate by check mark which basis of accounting the registrant has used to prepare the financial statements included in this filing: U.S.GAAP n International Financial Reporting Standards as issued by the International Accounting Standards Board ≠¤ Other n If â€Å"Other† has been checked in response to the previous question, indicate by check mark which financial statement item the registrant

Poetry Analysis Persimmons Essay Example For Students

Poetry Analysis: Persimmons Essay In the poem, the reality revealed is that we will someday fade away from people and this world. But that the true beauty lies during the events in our lives and until the finale, we are the ones to hold the sweet, ripe Persimmon, a sacred and distinct sun inside Golden warm. Lie-Young Lee implements imagery and symbolism to underline the metamorphosis of the early life of the struggles of social placement of a young American Chinese boy to the deep passions of a young man. Persimmons teach us that even if we may go blind, Just like the speakers father in the poem, it comes to show that our experiences of life, that despite not everyone will appreciate, or understand fully, that it is something that will forever remain etched in our souls. At first the poem starts out a bit scattered. There were several pieces that did not seem to follow the time and meaning, but while seemingly scattered, his memories do in fact connect in several ways. As one specific device, most of his recollections involve the symbol of the Chinese fruit, persimmons. The poem begins with an unpleasant memory from the speakers sixth grade classroom where he recalls being slapped on the head and ordered to stand in the corner for not knowing the difference/between persimmon and precision(3-5). Right at that moment the speakers attitude is that of confusion. In the first stanza, we learn that Mrs.. Walker was the speakers teacher in sixth grade: In sixth grade Mrs.. Walker Slapped the back of my head and made me stand in the corner for not knowing the difference between persimmon and precision. How to choose persimmons. This is precision. 1-6) To Mrs.. Walker, the point is simple; the young boy, whose native language is Chinese, simply cannot attain and grasp the elements of English. Clearly he confuses the words that are seen from Mrs.. Walkers point of view to have nothing in common, but Poetry maybe only holds similar sounds and that is all. But in the boys min are connected in a way that Mrs.. Walker will never grasp without del particular lite rary device that Lee uses is the choice of enjambment choose, (6) which breaks the first stanza and draws attention to the and the process of making choices. Although in the first stanza it is s beaker, as a child and as a student is stripped from the power to chi process and codes of the incident of his classroom assimilation, he r justifying his linguistic conflations of the words persimmon and pre connecting the words through their similar sounds and by symbolic How to choose/ persimmons. This is precision (6-7) and fight and yarn (31). While Justifying the melting pot of his words, he also re-CLC demonstrating his command of the English language. In the second Lee elaborates on the correct way of carefully selecting and eating a along with that it is affirmed that the speaker does in fact know the teens the two words. The speaker reveals his understanding of diction being used by Lee to describe how to pick out and eat a peers words soft, sweet, sniff, and brown-spotted, are given to the fur it and transcending the physical sense of the Chinese fruit and trans an important element, and symbol. Whereas the character of Mrs.. N the category of the teachers that one may meet throughout life. Anyone: from a school teacher, a semester -long college peer, a rand society itself. However, these teachers not Judge ones personality, ignorant. In defined terms; a person may be treated as a sheep, whew re the ones fenced in, not able to reach, see or feel further; they do survey into the deep and enigmatic waters of people, Self, and emote the boys mind. The teacher is not aware that his mind is full of differ world or emotions, and his rich culture. .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .postImageUrl , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:hover , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:visited , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:active { border:0!important; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:active , .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9 .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u74f1ba0d7a444feb287f48bef2ebb0e9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Analysis of the Bioethical Issues in Gattaca EssayThe only thing they perceive may have a problem; that the boy has trouble with words, which in a but for him, the words that tend to stick out of the page for him are assimilations that they induce: soft and brown-spotted. Sniff the bottoms. The sweet one Will be fragrant. How to eat: Put the knife away, lay down the newspaper. Peel the skin tenderly, not to tear the meat. Chew the skin, suck it, and swallow. Now, eat the meat of the fruit, so sweet, all of it, to the heart. Can Mrs.. Walker and anyone belonging to this pragmatic world even the world within him? To the speaker a persimmon is precision, beck the ability of perceiving a precise persimmon and the persimmon it by its existence; a soft fruit, the shape, the smell off ripe one is an has the talent to spot one and the proper knowledge of how to eat o -01 Ft-m 3-1 r. -x n Walker incorrectly prepares the persimmons for the class, as she it up (41) as if she were cutting up this demonstrates her violate ultra of the speaker. The poem takes on a dramatic turn at the third stanza, where the s forwards through time. Here the speaker describes the moment of experience with his lover. Here by Lees use of symbolism and con choice is significant because of specific time and place it is being moment, the speaker has forgotten his Chinese, this could repress problems of assimilation to have faded in the aspect of the triumph language. Although he has perhaps gained societal acceptance as American, he has also gravely lost, where his loss out wins his gain native language, the loss of his culture. As a second interpretation when the speaker forgets about the DeW and the fact that they a recalls the Crickets: Chic chic and that woo: you and his total captivation in the moment, the moment when two lovers union, one perhaps forgets that fact of nakedness, because perhaps moment, one does not feel naked, because their significant other are all they need to feel covered, a moment were all barriers are b free comfortable in the bareness, where he even forgets the back playing. By the use of symbolism, it is known that Persimmon is t and so acts as a metaphor of the love scene, focusing on the pass hat marks the speaker for life. In the ninth stanza, a new scene there is another shift in time, this time the speaker is a mature ad parents, but also revisiting old memories, that arouse ancient feel particular stanza, Lees use of vivid imagery is openly present, whew the speakers elderly father who has gone blind: . 1 rummage, looking for something I lost. I find a box. Three paintings by my father: Hibiscus leaf and a white flower. Two cats preening. Two persimmons, so full they want to drop from the cloth. . Which is this? . Eh, the feel of the wolf tail on the silk, the strength, the tense pr iris. Eyes closed. These I painted blind. Some things never leave a person: Scent of the hair of one you love, The texture of persimmons, in your palm, the ripe weight. (62-88). Concrete details allows has a great impact and effect on this paretic because it draws the reader in, allowing them to engage and become the feelings the poet is trying to transmit: the sight of the Hibiscus of the cats preening (75). Although the speakers father has lost can still see the world. When a person goes blind, they are shut but the thing that stays with the person transcends the sense of vision; the smell, he texture, the weight of the persimmon that the father speaks of that will never leave a person, (85) that the feel off ripe persimmon in the palm will remain a part of you , Just like the speakers culture, his memories and experiences. .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .postImageUrl , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:hover , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:visited , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:active { border:0!important; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:active , .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5 .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u663c094a444f25cd13a95d0ba0f03ba5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Salvador Dails The Persistence Of Memory Analysis Art EssayThis could also represent an important shift in the poems tone, in that the speakers finally accepts his culture or art of reminiscing of familiar emotions, both like being back home. His experiences, although not entirely positive, have helped him grow into the man he is now. Lie-Young Lee, by using sensory imagery and precise diction along with the informal stanza structure, reveals to the reader that, despite the speakers his bi- cultural past, he has now realized, through his experiences, that some of the most important things will not always be visible and he is at peace with his culture. The obscurity of words that Lee demonstrates in this poem correlates with the obscure and that of which is not accepted in our materialistic, and practical world. But the bitter-sweet irony of it all is that at times, as soon as something alike marvelous feeling or thought is put into words, its mystical beauty may diminish. This poem is tot only a self contained piece of poetry. It is art, a ticket to see, witness, and feel between our and the poets inner world.

Round II Of The Hundred Years War Essays - House Of Valois

Round II of the Hundred Years War Generally the last, and decisive, phase of the Hundred Years' War (1415-1453) is not well covered in most modern English or American histories of Western warfare. If not ignored completely, the reconquests by the French army of Charles VII are given the skimpiest summary treatment. Even popular French histories often close the coverage of the military events with the arrival of Joan of Arc, and suggest that this introduced a moral prerogative which outweighed military factors. There were obviously many more factors that lead to the expulsion of the English in 1453. The second phase of the Hundred Years War is far more crucial than the first phase, much like a football game, the second half being where the game is won or lost, not the first. As is the case in the Hundred Years War, the second phase decided the war. As in most examinations of war, emphasis will be laid on the origins of the second out break of war, the course of the second phase of the Hundred Years War, and the impact the war had on medieval Europe. The origins of the second phase of the Hundred Years War, can be directly linked to the first phase, Edward III claim to the French crown. The first phase of the war ended because of domestic crises in both countries. Hostilities still remained high during the relative peace that ensued between the two periods of the war, and there was no question if the war would resume, but rather only, when it would resume. This is seen with French troops assisting in a Scottish invasion of England in 1402.1 And again with the French sending an expedition to England to assist in Owen Glendower's revolt in Wales, against king Henry IV, but withdrew as the rebellion faltered.2 The French continued to harass the English during the so called truce. The English were just as hostile to the French, they supported many of the Flemish uprisings in France and English Barons in France would continue to raid the French countryside between 1373 and 1415.3 But what was the spark that relit the flame of war again in 1415? A civil war had been ragging in France since 1407, with the assassination of Charles VI's brother, Louis duc d'Orl?ans, by Jean 'the Fearless', duke of Burgundy. This resulted in open civil war in France between partisans of the duke of Burgundy (Burgundians) and those of the duke of Orl?ans, called 'Armagnacs'. When Henry V took the English throne in 1413, he decided to take advantage of the political turmoil in France to renew the English Kings claim to the French thrown. He quickly formed an alliance with Jean the Fearless, and the Burgundians in May of 1413. Two years after the alliance was formed Henry V invaded France with the help of the Burgundians, on September 23 the English captured Harfleur and on October 25 defeated a French army at Agincourt. These were the beginnings of the second phase of the Hundred Years War.4 The second phase of the Hundred Years War resembled the first phase, in that the English won overwhelming victories at the beginning and conquered much land, but in the end lost it all back to the French. The second phase began with the invasion of Henry V into France in 1415, he soon captured Harfleur and won a decisive victory at Agincourt. The battle is described by Jehan de Waurin, a French nobleman who fought against the English. Then the English archers, who, as I have said, were in the wings, saw that they were near enough, and began to send arrow on the French with great vigor. The said archers were for the most part in their doublets, without armor, their stockings rolled up to their knees, and having hatchets and battle-axes or great swords hanging at their girdles; some were bare-footed and bare-headed, others had caps of boiled leather, and others of osier, covered with harpoy or leather. Then the French, seeing the English come towards them in this fashion, placed themselves in order, every one under his banner, their helmets on their heads. The constable, the marshal, the admirals, and the other princes earnestly exhorted their men to fight the

10 Pairs of Words and Their Useful Distinctions

10 Pairs of Words and Their Useful Distinctions 10 Pairs of Words and Their Useful Distinctions 10 Pairs of Words and Their Useful Distinctions By Mark Nichol Writers should take care when determining which word among two or more synonyms or near synonyms to employ, because the sense of a word can be subtly or significantly different from that of a similar term, as the following examples illustrate. 1. Childish/Childlike Childish refers to immature behavior characteristic of a child, while childlike pertains to more positive qualities such as innocence and curiosity. 2. Illegible/Unreadable Something that is difficult to read because the text has been damaged or obscured is illegible or unreadable, but the latter term may alternatively refer to the poor quality of the content. 3. Incomparable/Uncomparable Incomparable is used as an intensifier to mean that the person, place, or thing so described is so excellent that no other person, place, or thing can compare; uncomparable, meanwhile, means that something about the person, place, or thing prevents it from being compared to someone, someplace, or something else. 4. Inequality/Inequity Inequality has a quantitative connotation; inequity implies an inequality borne of injustice or unfairness. However, inequality also has this sense in sociological contexts, as in references to gender or racial discrimination. 5. Inexplicable and Unexplainable These words are nearly identical in meaning, but inexplicable has developed a unique connotation of an illogical or irrational quality, as in references to odd behavior or supernatural phenomena. 6. Invaluable/Valuable Something valuable has value; something invaluable has value that, because of its quality or intangible importance, cannot be quantified. 7. Lonely/Lonesome Lonely and lonesome are nearly synonymous, but while lonely simply means â€Å"desiring companionship,† lonesome can have a slightly different connotation, one that is more existential or philosophical although, contradictorily, it is also more colloquial. Lonesome is also sometimes used to refer to a desolate landscape, as in â€Å"the lonesome prairie.† 8. Melted/Molten Something that has melted has, often because of heat, changed from a solid state to a liquid state; something that is molten is presently in a liquid state due to melting. The connotation is of extremely hot liquid, such as steel or lava, and the term also refers figuratively to a glowing quality. 9. Misinformed/Uninformed Someone who is misinformed has received erroneous information, whereas someone who is uninformed lacks information. 10. Nauseating/Nauseous Someone or something that is nauseating causes nausea; someone who is nauseated is experiencing nausea. This distinction is often not observed in colloquial writing, but careful writers maintain it. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. ProgrammeAwoken or Awakened?35 Synonyms for Rain and Snow

Grievances of the Colonists during the American Revolution essays

Grievances of the Colonists during the American Revolution essays The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776. This document stated that the American colonies were now the United States of America, and were now an independent country, separate from Britain. This document also explains to the world the reasons for the revolt against the British. The grievances that were felt by the colonists and their reactions to certain events were justified, and were also stated in this document. The Sugar Act in 1764 did not effect colonists outside of the traders and merchants, but it was an injustice that the colonists suffered. The Sugar Act did three things; it halved the duty on foreign-made molasses, placed duties on certain imports that had never been taxed before, and it strengthened the enforcement of the law allowing prosecutors to try smuggling cases in a vice-admiralty court rather than a colonial court. These taxes were imposed to help pay off Britains large war debt. Many merchants and traders protested that it was taxation without representation because the colonists had not elected any representatives. They also claimed that the British government had violated their rights, but these charges were unheard by the British. Although many colonists were unaffected by the Sugar Act, those that were affected had cause for concern and anger. This injustice was justified because the colonists had not elected representatives, they were not being tried fairly i n court, and their rights were being violated. In 1767, new taxes were imposed on the colonists. These new taxes were a part of the Townshend Acts, which put an indirect tax on imports such as glass, lead, paint, and paper. It also put a three-penny tax on tea. The Townshend Acts were created to gain revenue from the American colonies. Unfortunately for the British, the colonists reacted with rage against these new taxes. The educated people said it was taxation without representation. The colonist...

Health Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health Economics - Assignment Example This paper illustrates that since 1929 the number of physicians has rapidly increased as compared to ancillary health workers. This is because of the magnitude to which macroeconomic trends, GDP, and personal income, influence physicians utilization according to the study carried by et al, 2003. As from this year, the GDP and personal income have been shown to increase thereby increasing the utilization of physicians. As more technological advances become of the medicine the demand for less skilled workers will reduce since technology have been shown to do more of the work. Intuitively, the number of skilled workers will grow faster because their labor is needed in supporting technological advancement. The researcher states that just like any goods and services, the value of knee brace is determined by the market forces, that is demand and supply. When the demand is high and supply is low, the value is likely to increase in the market. The paper tells that the operation is a medical service already offered and therefore would require compensation in form of $7,000. This puts the patient in a better place since he or she has received a service which was really needed and at the same point has paid for it. Research and development: This factor affects the US expenditure in health since the innovation of new medicines is essential and needs to be funded. This also affects the increase in demand

Describe an issue where there is an ethical implication Essay

Describe an issue where there is an ethical implication - Essay Example While academic integrity is a long considered issue within higher education establishments across the globe, its implications in light of the recent economic collapse have taken on a newfound importance. In these regards, the area that has received the most attention has been the connection between professors in United States’ business departments and major Wall-Street banks and brokerage firms that contributed to the economic collapse. Perhaps unique to the university business departments, the professors oftentimes receive substantial sums of money for consulting and preparing reports on these financial institutions. While the notion that business professors are receiving money for consultations by itself is not of major concern, there are substantial ethical implications for this type of collaboration. The first implication is that professors have been indicated to accept money for producing content related to the financial prosperity of a country or region, without indicati ng this in the document itself. The significant ethical implications behind this are that the content is biased yet the professor is using his university’s reputation as a means of supporting his claims.

No topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

No topic - Assignment Example However, very often these expectations were not lived up as it not very easy for the new government to rule the country. These difficulties created new problems for newly independent state, especially if these were African states, which became independent after the long years of colonial regime. Colonizers ruled the country in their own way and it was not very easy for the new government to cope with all the problems that a newly independent country may have faced. There can be the following four main issues of the post-colonial period defined: Sovereignity and safety. The government of the newly independent states should have taken care of sovereignty and safety. This was important because the countries were created and ruled by colonizers and in the new conditions they could easily disintegrate; Propaganda of unity. The colonies created by Europeans had different culture and different languages, thus it was essential to provide national unity. People with different culture and reli gions belief had to realize that they are citizens of one country called Africa. Otherwise, the country would not be able to exist; Ethic conflicts prevention. The main principle of colonial policy was â€Å"divide and rule†. This created very difficult relations between the ethnic groups. Many of them were aggressive in their attitudes towards the other. Thus, it was important for the government to prevent further conflicts; Human services provision. Colonial regime did not prescribe satisfying basic human needs of the citizens of colonies. Colonists needed only their work and did not think about what they need. Thus, it was important for the new government to satisfy basic needs of the citizens of newly independent Africa. 2. The role of women in African nationalism creation was very interesting and it predefined their position in post-colonial society. Some scientists even argue that African nationalism managed to reach its goals at the expense of women and their subordina te position. It means that the nationalists defended women’s interests in order to attract as many people as possible to their movement. It was determined that the struggle for women’s rights was held alongside the struggle for freedom of Africa. Certainly, we can’t omit the fact that the common interests of the struggle usually overshadowed the interests of women as women were initially directed on the struggle for the interests of nationalists. Notwithstanding that nationalists defended women’s interests and talked about â€Å"motherland† instead of â€Å"fatherland†, when they talked about the â€Å"fathers† of the revolution, they still talked about men. This was primarily because most of women who took part in the revolution were uneducated. However, they managed to find the connection between maternity and the fight and turned the ability to give birth into their force. This helped them to move into politics as â€Å"birth give rs for all these men†. 3. State politics can be considered through the concepts of engagement and disengagement. There are four forms of political relations defined: state elite is engaged in regulation; state elite is disengaged due to the obstacles on the way to authority met by elite or elite retrenchment; ordinary citizens are engaged in political regulations; ordinary citizens are disengaged due to bad access to power. The disengagement from the state threatens the hegemony of the state. People do not trust their state and want to

Peter Druckers Contribution To Management Management Essay

Peter Druckers Contribution To Management Management Essay Peter Drucker is the finest modern management thinker in terms of his groundbreaking ideas on management and business disciplines. This paper will discuss his major contributions to management theory and practice and critically appraise his ideas about marketing, performance management, knowledge economy, managing change and post industrialisation. One of the contributions of Peter Drucker is the theory called Management by Objectives.MBO or Management by Objective emphasize the importance of identifying specific goals for each employee. Afterwards, the organization will then compare and direct their performance against established goals. MBOs main intention is to improve organizational performance through aligning goals and subordinate objective across the organization. Employee often improves their input through identification of goals and setting reasonable time lines. Management by Objectives includes continuous monitoring and feedbacks during the process of reaching goals (Value Based Management 2010). Peter Drucker first created the concept of MBO in 1954 in his book The Practice of Management. As suggested by Drucker, managers must prevent activity trap or being engaged in their daily activities that they often ignore their primary purpose. To improve the effectiveness of a business strategic plan, MBO theories suggested that all managers (not some or few) must engage in the strategic planning process. Another aspect of MBO states that managers must establish various performance systems created to support the firm to remain on the right track. MBO Principles includes cascading objectives and goals of the organization, providing specific goals for every member, encourage participative decision making, established reasonable time line and evaluate performance and give feedbacks (Value Based Management 2010). MBO also introduced the SMART approach for assessing the validity of Objectives that must be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time Related (Value Based Management 2010). Specific means setting expected results that are more specific; for instance, rather than stating better customer satisfaction, the goal should increase customer satisfaction score by 12 points employing the customer service survey. Objectives should also be measurable. This may mean that the organization should include their objectives in the review process. They should create measure to determine clearly whether a member has satisfied its objectives or not; for example, please rate the cleanliness of the store ranging from excellent, good, fair and poor (Bogue 2005). Achievable is the next crucial factor in establishing goals. For example, achieving 10 to 20 percent improve customer service is considered achievable while the goals of improving customer service by around 100 to 200 percent is considered unachievable. Being realistic signifies considering uncontrollable circumstances. Realistic objectives should be challenging but not too challenging that the chances of achieving such goal is minimal. Time-based signifies that the organization should set specific time period when the objective should be reached. In other words, objectives should not involve, should increase customer satisfaction by 20 percents but rather it must be should increase customer satisfaction by 20 percent within the next 14 months (Bogue 2005). Peter Drucker also served as the leading authority of entrepreneurship and innovation. According to Drucker (cited in Iowa State University 2010), Innovation consists of finding a new and more effective way of performing tasks. He believes that the organization has seven sources or places to search for innovative opportunities that must be recognized by those people who are interested in venturing entrepreneurship. The first one is the unexpected. Signs of unique opportunity could be unexpected incident, unexpected failure or unexpected success. Any discrepancy regarding reality and what reality should be can also serve as an opportunity to innovate. Innovation can also arise from the process need. If a specific process has a weak link, but individuals involved are used to it rather than solving the issue, this presents an opportunity (Iowa State University 2010). Opportunity for innovation might also emerge in changes in market structure and the industry as well as in the changes in population size, age structure, and employment, level of education and income of a society. Improvements in both scientific and non-scientific information can generate new products and new markets. Furthermore, apart from opportunities, Drucker also presented five principles of innovation so that interested people would be able to exploit what they have realized. The first one is they should start evaluation of the existing opportunity (Iowa State University 2010). Next, they should assess if the target market would be interested with the said innovation. An innovation will also become more effective if it is simple and clearly emphasizes a specific need. Successful innovation often starts small. Entrepreneurs could target a small market niche and as the market grows, the organization would have the time to improve its processes to accommodate the demands of the expanding market. They should also focus on market leadership. Otherwise, the idea would not be innovative enough to become successful (Iowa State University 2010). Drucker also stated that marketing and innovation serve as the two basic functions since the main purpose of entrepreneurship is to create a customer. The remaining functions are considered as costs. If marketers perform their job correctly, which signifies effectively focusing on customer and innovate, and then other business elements will fall into place. He also argued that the main focus of marketing should be ways to sell superfluously-meaning understand the customers that the service and product will become appealing. Therefore, marketing should make customers ready to purchase a specific service or product (Gonzalez n.d.). Subject matters related to management and leadership also serves as another important contribution from Peter Drucker. In fact, he created his own definition of leadership. For Drucker, leadership and management only have few differences in terms of definition. He believes that leadership is not purely about specific characteristics since no leaders will show exactly similar characteristics. Leadership is not also about having a charisma and king-like features (will be discussed later). Leadership is about how people perform their responsibility being a leader-similar to management (Business Listening 2005). One of the foundations of effective leadership is considering the organizations mission and identifying it. Organization should clearly establish that mission. It would be the responsibility of the leaders to establish those goals and priorities with clarity. Similarly, it would be up to the leader to describe and sustain those standards. Another foundation for effective leadership is the leadership responsibility. Successful leaders do not blame others since they are aware that they will take responsibility of any actions made by his/her subordinate. Effective leaders are also not anxious of independent thinking subordinates and they often persuade their team to become more effective members. The leaders responsibility is to share their visions among the group and create a working atmosphere where team members may flourish (Winston-Churchill Leadership 2007). Effective leadership also requires trust; otherwise, leaders will not gain effective followers. Trust can be earned but not through being loved. It does not also signify that subordinates and leaders should have the same opinion. Rather, anything what the leaders say should also reflect on their actions-integrity. If leaders have integrity, then they can be trusted (Winston-Churchill Leadership 2007). Drucker also discussed the dangers of charisma. Examples of those charismatic leaders who are not effective leaders include Mao, Stalin, Mussolini and Hitler. In other words, people should not choose leaders on the basis of charisma. Harry Truman does not have any charisma but everyone became loyal to him since he is an effective and trusted leader. If Truman said yes, he truly means yes. He does not say no to other one, and then yes to the other person concerning the same issue. Another effective leadership without an ounce of charisma is Ronald Reagan since he is very aware what he is capable of and not capable of (Karlgaard 2004). Furthermore, he created a five-part effectiveness model regarding management based on listening skills specifically steps one, two and five. The first step suggests that selecting ways to spend and not to spend time necessitates insistent delegation to avoid spending time on nonessential matters. Even though Drucker did not state it directly, it is clearly the Druckers concept of delegation is about coaching management style, wherein it involves timely listening with their subordinate regarding planning and progress. Direct control management style would discourage effective delegation of duties (Business Listening 2005). The next step is the executive should ask their subordinates what they contribute for the company today and for the future. As Drucker suggested, regardless whether subordinates view is similar is similar to the managers perspectives or not, emphasizing and realizing the value of everybodys roles being a contributor is necessary to the companys overall effectiveness. This is similar to the principles covered by Covey and Goleman regarding self-awareness, listening to one-self and having awareness towards others (e.g. listening to subordinates) (Business Listening 2005). In the fifth step, Drucker focused on the significance of actively searching for competing opinions and requesting regarding the basis for those opinions before selecting courses of action instead of acting based on pre-arranged or implicit consensus. This will need persistent listening with real curiosity to promote development of various opinions and assisting rationales, instead of simply establishing proposal and building consensus around them (Business Listening 2005). Drucker encourages coaching management style since he believes that the next society will become a knowledge economy. Knowledge will serve as an important resource and knowledge workers will become dominant workforce. The three characteristics of knowledge includes borderlessness, upwards mobility and its potential for success and failure. Knowledge is borderless since it can be transferred to another effortlessly. Upward mobility signifies knowledge is readily available through formal education. However, having that knowledge does not signify success since it can also become a failure depending on how people execute that knowledge. Drucker also noted that knowledge economy will heavily rely on knowledge workers (Drucker 2001). Therefore, it would be prudent for leaders to create an atmosphere would help reached knowledge workers to reach their own potential (Business Listening 2005). Critical Appraisal Druckers Ideas However, the question remains whether the principles presented by Drucker are still applicable to the modern management. The most plausible answer is that in general they are still applicable to the modern management. However, all principles whether they are created by Drucker or by other scholars have their own limitations and strengths as well as. One good example is the Management by Objectives. While Management by Objectives presented a foundation for organizations how to achieve goals, it might not be always applicable to all organizations. For instance, MBO is appropriate for knowledge-based enterprises that consist of competent staff. This is also suitable in situations that require tapping the creativity of their employees as well as their self-leadership skills. Management by Objectives is often used by CEOs in multinational corporations for their general managers overseas (Kotelnikov 2001). Another limitation of MBO is that it did not emphasize the significance of the environment as well as other aspects that would affect that satisfaction of goals. These aspects include quality and availability of resources and the influence of stakeholders over the objective (e.g. investors decisions). It did not also emphasize the importance of effectively responding to barriers and issues that are necessary to reach the objective. MBO did not emphasize the effect of the following concepts: limitations of planning, methodology and resources, expanding barriers related managing the information organization as well as the influence of changing environment which could change the business atmosphere and make planned actions inappropriate for the present situation (A Management by Objectives, History and Evolution n.d.). MBO did not emphasize the human nature concern. People across the world establish goals each year but do not follow them until they reach that goals. Objectives should also reflect on behaviour. On the other hand, goal setting often represents best intentions on that moment, aspirations or good ideas. Objectives does not always associate to the degree of execution that is necessary for achieving objectives (A Management by Objectives, History and Evolution n.d.). Another concept that will be assessed is Druckers perception of Effective Leadership. Drucker often emphasize either coaching management style or the delegating leader. However, he may have overlooked that effective leaders does not only delegate tasks or coach their teams. Leaders often made actions based on the situation, also known as situational leadership. The Situational Leadership Theory is not created by Peter Drucker but by Hersey and Blanchard. However, Hersey and Blanchard included delegating style as a part of Situational Leadership. Therefore, it does not necessarily signify that Druckers notions about leadership are wrong, but he only perceive an effective leadership in a limited scope-that is, his principles are only applicable in multinational corporations and other large scale businesses, not for small business management (Innovation and Entrepreneurship n.d.). Unlike the leadership principles presented by Drucker, Hersey and Blanchard believe that an effective leader adjusts their leadership styles. Leaders that employ situational leadership structure change their focus on task and interaction behaviour in order to deal with various levels of follower maturity. Based on the aforementioned information, it seems Drucker did not emphasize the fact that followers have different levels of maturity and some of them are not creative as leaders might expect to their subordinates. Furthermore, Hersey and Blanchard enumerated four possible leadership styles that a leader should employ: delegating, participating, selling and telling styles (Wiley 2006). Managers who employ situational leadership should be able to establish an alternative leadership styles as necessary. In order to do so, leaders should need to understand the maturity of follower in terms of readiness of tasks and employ the best leadership style that would be suitable to the working environment. If the follower maturity is high, then leaders should implement delegating style since this offer limited leadership intervention. If the situation is otherwise, then leaders should employ telling styles that focuses on task directed behaviours (Wiley 2006). Delegating style is not effective for those staff that has low readiness and has insufficient capability to perform tasks. Instead, the coaching management style might suffice in this situation. Other leadership styles that do not fall on the aforementioned categories include participating style and selling style. Therefore, Drucker should have explained when to use and when not to use coach management style and delegating style. Drucker also failed to recognize that an effective leader should be flexible enough to change his leadership style since followers, situations and environmental factors changed over time (Wiley 2006). Drucker believes that leadership is not purely about specific characteristics since no leaders will show exactly similar behaviours (Business Listening 2005). However, he did not consider that effective leaders have common qualities. One of these is the capability of listening, which is ironically speaking, this was acknowledged by Drucker but he did not consider as common features of effective leader. Effective leaders often accept and provide constructive suggestions, provide clear directions, establish and satisfy deadlines and capable of providing formal and informal presentation. Effective leaders often sets as a good role model, assist members in identifying and solving problems, elicits appreciations of members contributions and effectively handle dispute resolution. Other behaviours of an effective leader that was acknowledged by Drucker include delegation of responsibility, capable of developing productive atmosphere and asking questions to team members (The Government of Al berta 2001). While Druckers notion about the importance of innovation holds true in general, innovation itself has own risks and challenges. Because Drucker only provided limited information about taking advantage of innovation opportunities successfully, people often fall on innovation traps. For instance, leaders might always think that they are always ready to consider innovation. While thinking helps entrepreneurs to understand the tools and techniques that they should use to implement innovation, fallacies can disrupt reaching such objectives (Glor n.d). Innovators should have a clear thinking and not a wishful thinking. Another innovation trap is there is only one effective approach to examine innovation, which can be contrary to Druckers five principles of innovation. In other words, Drucker did not focus on the possible barriers that innovators might encounter during planning and implementation process. Successful innovators effectively ignore such barriers. Nevertheless, innovators should also anticipate specific threats and develop actions in order to overcome such problems (Glor n.d). Conclusion Peter Drucker is the finest modern management thinker in terms of his groundbreaking ideas on management and business disciplines. One of the contributions of Peter Drucker is the theory called Management by Objectives.MBO or Management by Objective emphasize the importance of identifying specific goals for each employee. Afterwards, the organization will then compare and direct their performance against established goals. MBOs main intention is to improve organizational performance through aligning goals and subordinate objective across the organization. While Management by Objectives presented a foundation for organizations how to achieve goals, it might not be always applicable to all organizations. For instance, MBO is appropriate for knowledge-based enterprises that consist of competent staff. This is also suitable in situations that require tapping the creativity of their employees as well as their self-leadership skills. Another limitation of MBO is that it did not emphasize the significance of the environment as well as other aspects that would affect that satisfaction of goals. These aspects include quality and availability of resources and the influence of stakeholders over the objective. It did not also emphasize the importance of effectively responding to barriers and issues that are necessary to reach the objective. MBO did not focused on the effect of the following concepts: limitations of planning, methodology and resources, expanding barriers related managing the information organization as well as the influence of changing environment which could change the business atmosphere and make planned actions inappropriate for the present situation. Drucker also stated that marketing and innovation serve as the two basic functions since the main purpose of entrepreneurship is to create a customer. If marketers perform their job correctly, which signifies effectively focusing on customer and innovate, and then other business elements will fall into place. He also argued that the main focus of marketing should be ways to sell superfluously-meaning understand the customers that the service and product will become appealing. Therefore, marketing should make customer ready to purchase a specific service or product. While Druckers notion about the importance of innovation holds true in general, innovation itself has own risks and challenges. Because Drucker only provided limited information about taking advantage of innovation opportunities successfully, people often fall on innovation traps. In other words, Drucker did not focus on the possible barriers that innovators might encounter during planning implementation process. Successful innovators effectively ignore such barriers but innovators should also anticipate specific threats and develop actions in order to overcome such problems. There are no questions regarding Druckers capability, wisdom and intelligence about the management, leadership and entrepreneurship. However, similar to other principles created by scholars, they have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the case of Druckers, it seems that he overlooked stakeholders and environmental factors that influence the success of achieving objectives as well as other barriers that entrepreneurs and innovators might ignore.

Internet Security Enforced Essay

The advent of computers and their related technologies has greatly impacted on everyday personal, academic, and professional lives. The internet has become one of the leading sources of information as many people prefer to access and analyze the information they need from the World Wide Web. The internet has so much information which is very accessible to anyone who has a connected computer, and this includes small children. Teachers, students, and educational institutions have increasingly relied on the internet for learning both inside and outside the context of the classroom. How these technologies are implemented however determines if their application is good (ethical) or not good (unethical). In this essay, the author seeks to explain how technology might be in use to cause good benefits to the society and bad benefits. One major benefit of technology is that it has created efficiency in everyday life. Computers can process large amounts of data with minute precision, and this application is in use by business organizations all over the world (Cohen, 1995). However, the information in the World Wide Web is accessible to many people, and if sufficient security measures are not put in place, this benefit could end up being abused. There is thus a need for software developers, organizations, schools and governments to work together in ensuring that technological systems that protect the integrity, confidentiality and privacy of information posted on the internet is ensured. Many unscrupulous individuals like hackers, cybercriminals and cyber-terrorists are always lurking to seize personal information from the internet with the purpose of orchestrating several types of crime. With the amount of money being paid in the black market for private information, hackers are always on the prowl waiting for an opportunity to cause havoc on academic institutional, governmental and corporate websites (Guangrong, 1998). The information they obtain ends up being used to commit crimes like online fraud, identity theft and espionage. With this unethical usage being a very probable occurrence, very robust security software applications like anti-spyware and anti-viruses must be made so that the integrity of information stored in the internet can be protected. As I stated earlier, as long as the computers available in schools and libraries are connected to the internet, there is no limit to the diversity of information school children can gain access to. Any implementation of technology must be made with the objective of serving the community it targets with benefits. The objective of information technology services in schools is not that school children can access adult material or any other information that can be of bad influence. This is where technology steps in. ffective technologies of combating unethical sites (that is the ones with pornographic material, hate campaigns as well as a variety of other unsuitable content) should be implemented in schools and at homes to protect the innocence of children (Guangrong, 1998) The more the internet technology penetrates, the more teachers and students are finding it a useful tool for teaching and learning (Fung, 1998). The internet sounds and looks pretty simple to anyone who does not reall y understand the technicalities behind it. The use of persuasive technology on the internet is one example of technologies that could lure both teachers and students in orchestrating the practice of unethical activities. Persuasive technology as used in the internet poses a very serious challenge to educational instructors who choose to deliver their services through the internet. There is a very high risk of persuasive technologies being used to intentionally or unintentionally make children submit sensitive information about themselves or their families without knowing the risks they are exposing themselves and their families to. By definition, persuasive technologies are those interactive technologies which are intended to change an individual’s behaviors or attitudes towards specific issues including social, sexual and political beliefs and practices (Ellison, Steinfied, & Lampe, 2007). They can also be used to promote healthy eating habits and awareness on environmental conservation. These are examples of technologies which can be used to promote good use of technology and also bad use as explained below. Intelligence systems designed to monitor the activities of employees as they log in and out of the systems in the workplace constitute a healthy of ethical use of technology since it ensures they effectively use the resources at their disposal for the benefit of their employer and themselves (Cohen, 1995). With social networking sites and chat rooms increasing by the day, employees are developing the tendency to waste a lot of man hours on these sites. Their productivity therefore goes down and the effect is finally transmitted to the economy. Additionally, employees can use office systems to do illegal things like spy on their employers or other entities. If persuasive technologies are put in place to monitor their activities, then there will be less breakage of law and ethics. The same persuasive technologies can be put in place to monitor the movement of employees in service provision stores like supermarkets, restaurants and bars. This could end up ensuring that they stick to etiquette like washing their hands after visiting the washrooms or after getting into contact with other unhygienic practices, but it is unethical since it undermines their dignity and creates distrust. The same applies to companies who require visitors to their websites to submit their personal information before utilizing certain services before using a certain utility, for example downloading a software package or accessing a certain article. Legally, technology can be used to ensure adherence to laws especially those formulated to control the process of conducting or dissipating information on the web. If monitoring software can be installed at internet gateways to track any illegal undertakings being conducted in the web, the culprits can be tracked down and stopped to promote the safety of other internet users. However, this in itself has ethical implications in that every bit of content will have to be checked, and the privacy of information will be compromised albeit by a law enforcing agency. The motive of monitoring agencies may be good, but it may be used to conduct morally unacceptable activities by all or interested parties. Finally, there has been widespread condemnation of censorship, particularly in the case of Google Corporation and the government of the People’s Republic of China. The Chinese government stipulates strict censorship of the media including the internet. Not every type of information can be accessed, and this is achieved by the use of inhibitors to the various protocols used to search for and access information. This directly violates the people’s right to information and is therefore not only unethical but also illegal. From these examples, it is evident that the internet and other tools provided for by technology can be used to constitute good and bad use.

Understand the Relationship Between Organizational Structure and Culture.

Task 1: Understand the relationship between organizational structure and culture. P1. 1: Compare and contrast different organisational structure and culture. According to Buchanan and Huczynski, an organisation is a ‘social arrangement for the controlled performance of collective goals’. Chester Barnard described an organisation as ‘a system of co-operative human activities’. Organisation are can be define as; ‘A deliberately formed group of human being with known boundaries and common goal’. Or, a group of people working together to achieved a common goal. There are 2 types of organisation: i. formal organization and ii. Informal organisation. A formal organization is one which is deliberately constructed to fulfil specific goals’. It is characterized by planned division of responsibility and a well-defined structure of authority and communication. ‘An informal organization is one which loosely structured, flexible and spontaneous, fluctuating with its individual membership’. Examples of an informal organization are colleagues who tend to lunch together. Organizational structure: There are many types of organisational structures exist. Following are the common types that include their advantages and disadvantages: A. Geographical organisation: In a structure of geographical, regional or territorial departmentation, some authority is retaining at head office, but day to day operations are handled on a territorial basis. Example: northern region, western region. Advantage: i. There is local decision-making. ii. It may be cheaper to establish local factories or office. Disadvantage: i. Duplication and possible loss of economies of scale might arise. ii. Inconsistency in stander may develop from one area to another. B. Functional organization: functional organization involves grouping together people who perform similar tasks or use similar technology or materials. Primary functions in a manufacturing company might be production, sales, finance marketing and general administration. Advantage: i. Expertise is pooled and related technology/equipment or materials accessed more efficiently. ii. It avoids duplication and offers economies of scale. iii. It makes easier the recruitment, training and motivation of professional specialists. Disadvantage: i. It is organization by inputs and internal processes, rather than by output and customers demand. i. Communication problems may arise between different specialism, with their own culture and language. iii. Poor co-ordination may result, especially in a tall organization structure. C. Product-based organization: Some organizations group activities on the basis of product or product line. Some functional departmentation remains but a divisional manager is g iven responsibility for the product or product line. Example: manufacturing, distribution, marketing and sales. Advantage: i. Accountability. ii. Specialization. iii. Co-ordination. Disadvantage: i. It increased the overhead costs and managerial complexity of the organization. ii. Different product divisions may fail to share resources and customers. D. Matrix organization: Matrix organization crosses functional and product, customer and project organization. Advantages of the matrix organization: i. It attempts to retain the benefits of both structures ( functional organization and project team structure ). ii. Coordinates resources in a way that applies them effectively to different projects. iii. Staff can retain membership on teams and their functional department colleagues. Disadvantages of the matrix organization: i. Potential for conflict between functional vs. project groups. ii. Greater administrative overhead. iii. Increase in managerial overhead E. Centralization and decentralization organization: In a centralised organisation head office (or a few senior managers) will retain the major responsibilities and powers. Conversely decentralised organisations will spread responsibility for specific decisions across various outlets and lower level managers, including branches or units located away from head office/head quarters. An example of a decentralised structure is Tesco the supermarket chain. Each store of Tesco has a store manager who can make certain decisions concerning their store. The store manager is responsible to a regional manager. F. Multi-functional and Multi divisional organization: In a functional structure jobs become differentiated around areas of specialty. For example, accounting and human resource specialists are hired to handle these specialized tasks. These specialists (functional line managers) report to the CEO, but usually have autonomy for day-to-day decision-making, e. . , hiring and firing personnel. The multidivisional structure centres on the use of separate businesses or profit centres. The M-Form is used by many organizations that compete in the global economy. General Electric is an example of a company that uses this structure. Each unit is operated as a separate business with its own corporate staff including President. Some parent companies do little more than provide capital and guide units to an organizational-wide strategy. The overall goal is to maximize the overall organization’s performance. In order to accomplish this, managers at the â€Å"parent† use a combination of strategic and financial controls. G. Internal and external network structure: ‘A behavioral view is that a network is a pattern of social relations over a set of persons, positions, groups, or organizations’. ’ Network organizations are defined by elements of structure, process, and purpose’. A network organization maintains permeable boundaries either internally among business units or externally with other firms. H. Organizational charts: Organization charts, such as those used to traditional way of setting out in diagrammatic form: i. The units (department etc. ) into the organization are divided and how they relate to each other. ii. The formal communication and reporting Chanels of the organization. iii. The structure of authority, responsibility and delegation in the organization including. iv. Any problems in the above: insufficient delegation, long lines communication or unclear authority relationships. I. Span of control: The span of control refers to the number of subordinate immediately reporting to a superior official. The right Span of control is depended are those things: i. A manager’s capabilities limit the span of control. i. The nature of the manager’s work load. iii. Subordinates work. iv. The interaction between subordinates. J. Flexible working: A useful definition of flexible working relates to when, where, how and what work is done: Flexible time:Work is performed at times that better suit the employer and/or employee Flexible place:Work is carried out wherever is most appropriate and effective for the employer and/or employee. Flexible contract:Workers are employed and/or rewarded in non-standard ways. Flexible tasks:Multi-skilled workers are able to undertake a variety of tasks according to need. Organizational culture: Organizational culture (in the sense organizational climate) is the collective’s self-image and style of the organization; its shared values and beliefs, norms and symbols. In the bellow we discuss about various organizational culture: Power culture: This is also known as web structure. This is usually associated with the small organizations. This is where the central character, usually the founder has all authority and is typically surrounded by people they get on with and usually seen with empowerment since there is lot of trust between the webs. There is a central power source and the rays of influence spread out from that central figure. In this type of organization individuals rather than a group make all the decisions. The danger of this sort of culture is that, because it is autocratic, there can be a feeling of suppression and lack of challenge in the workforce. Since this is associated with small organizations there are not many theories associated with it and are only seen in smaller companies, which shows it, will only work on small scale. Role culture: The role culture is typical of bureaucracies. In the role culture, the jobs that people do- their roles – are more important than the people themselves. Managers have power and influence due to their status within the organization and not because of personal influence or expertise. Business would be divided into various functions (e. g. finance, marketing, production etc. ). These would then have a hierarchical ordering of offices (e. g. Finance director, Production manager, Supervisors, operators etc. ). Role cultures can only be successful where the environment in which the business is operating remains stable. Where a business faces rapid change, the role culture is likely to collapse. The large organizations, which can be difficult to control often, have a role culture. Task culture: Task cultures have become very important in business in the first decade of twenty first century. The task culture focuses on getting the job done. Groups or teams within this culture are not fixed but are made up of individuals brought together to achieve a specific task. In the task culture there is a strong emphasis on building the team. Team members will need to share values and aspirations. They will also need to feel valued by the organization they work for. In task culture, teams will often have considerable input in determining how a particular job will be done. Their views and opinions will be listed. Person culture: In a person culture, individuals are central. Person culture is also known as cluster structure. This is very rare and is only associated to small organizations with very short structures and an extremely wide base. This is because they are usually conjoined with the organizations that are specialist in many different areas (universities, many lawyers and scientific researching) there is no real rules, only law associated with the types of experimenting and research. Organizational cultures values and beliefs: i. It affects the motivation and satisfaction of employees. ii. It can aid the adaptability of the organization, by encouraging innovation, risk taking, sensitivity to the environment, customer care, willingness to embrace new methods and technologies. iii. It affects the image of the organization. Development of organizational culture: There are many factors which influence the organizational culture, including the following: i. Economic condition. ii. The nature of the business and its tasks. iii. Leadership style. iv. Policies and practices. v. Structure. vi. Characteristics of the work force. P1. 2: Explain how the relationship between an organizations structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business. Broadly, we can say that a behavioural problem is anything in the behaviour of people-individual, interpersonal and group. At first we discuss about various type of diagnosing and interpersonal behavioural problems; Diagnosing behaviour problem: Diagnosis is the thorough analysis of facts or problem in order to gain understanding. Principles of diagnosis: i. Distinguish the symptom from the problem. ii. Look at the facts. iii. Don’t be simplistic about causes. iv. Focus on the problem, not the person. v. Don’t impose your own judgments. vi. Respect privacy and confidentiality. Methodology of diagnosis: i. Observation. ii. Interview. iii. Questionnaires. iv. Reports. Perception: Perception is the psychological process by which stimuli or in-coming sensory data are selected and organized into patterns which are meaningful to the individual. Perceptual selection: Perceptual selection as determined by any or all of the following: i. The context. ii. The nature of the stimuli. iii. Internal factors. iv. Fear or trauma. Perception and work behavior: Perception and work behavior do are following way: i. Consider whether you might be misinterpreting the situation. ii. Consider whether others might be misinterpreting the situation or interpreting it differently from you. iii. When tacking a task or a problem, get the people involved to define the situation. iv. Be aware of the most common clashes of perception at work. Such as, manager and staff, work culture, race and gender. Attitudes: An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related. Ability and aptitude: there have been many attempts to make a useful distinction between: i. Abilities-thins that people can do or are at- largely believed to be inherited. ii. Aptitudes-the capacity to learn and develop abilities or skill. Intelligence: Intelligence is a wide and complex concept. There are many forms of intelligence: i. Analytic intelligence. ii. Spatial intelligence. ii. Musical intelligence. iv. Physical intelligence. v. Practical intelligence. vi. Intra-personal intelligence. vii. Inter-personal intelligence. P1. 3: Discuss the factors which influence individual behaviour at work: In the bellow we discuss about various type of individual’s behavior: Personality: personality is the total pattern of characteristic ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that constitute the individuals distinctive method of relating to the environment. Traits and types: Traits are consistently observable properties or the tendency for a person in a particular way. Self and self-image: Self: self has a two component: A. T- the unique, active, impulsive part of the individual, which rises above conformity. And B. Me- the mental process which reflects objectively on the self and measures it against the social norms, values and expectation. Self-image: People have a subjective picture of what their own self is like, this called a self-image. Personality and work behavior: Obviously personalities are complex and individual. Personality and work behavior conflicted in organization; manager will have to consider the following aspect: i. The compatibility of an individual’s personality with the task. ii. The compatibility of an individual’s personality with the systems and management culture of the organization. iii. The compatibility of the individual’s personality with that of others in the team. Where incompatibilities occur, the manager will have to: . Restore compatibility. ii. Achieve compromise. iii. Remove the incompatible personality. Organizational structure and Culture of Sainsbury and Tesco: Sainsbury’s organization structure: The organizational structure of Sainsbury’s is hierarchical because there is series of levels of people and the level above controls each level. Each lev el is the responsibility of the level above. For example senior managers are responsible for the line managers and line managers are responsible for sales assistants. The diagram below shows the downward flow of communication in Sainsbury’s. I think Sainsbury’s structure is between hierarchical and tall structure. Tall structure has many layers but not as many layers as matrix structure and as less as flat structure and this means the information is not a s fast in flat structure and not as slow as in matrix structure. Due to fast flow of communication it is easier and clear between each layer. This when decisions are made they will be specific to order instructions. Strengths of Sainsbury’s structure: i. It gives them a greater sense of unity and purpose as they can see themselves as members of a team. i. It is easier to get help, as they can ask experienced colleagues or take more difficult problems to boss. iii. It makes easier to carry out joint projects as everyone involved is working together. iv. There are economies of scale as specialist staff can do more work efficiently. v. Communications from top to bottom are better, as there are definite channels through which orders can flow. Weakness of this structure: i. Hierarchies usually have tall organizational structures with seven or eight levels of authority. This means that there is long chain of command. i. Each employee is concerned mainly with his or her own function, or specialized work, and often has only employees in other departments. iii. There is natural tendency for managers to protect the interest of their own department. This may make them more concerned with office politics than with the interests of the whole firm. iv. The hierarchical system emphasizes status. This creates divisions in the firm, which are reflected in separate car-parking spaces for managers, longer holidays for white-collar workers and separate canteen for blue-collar workers. Tesco organization structure: Tesco has a hierarchical/pyramid structure. In Tesco organisational chart they have more levels and they have more employees at down level. In hierarchical structure each functional area has many staff to do a particular task they are specialised in the job. Each person has a job role and there will be a specific salary for the job. In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted because their chains of command are long. When messages pass from top level to the bottom level they receive a message slightly different message than the one they intended to receive. In hierarchical structure the staffs at the bottom level feels that the manager at the top has no idea what they think or do. In a hierarchical structure many people have to be consulted before a decision is made. This means that the company is slow in responding to changes. The span of control is less in Tesco because they have many levels and the span of control explains the person who is responsible for you. For example if a store manager has 4 sections manager then his span of control are four. In hierarchical there is a good promotion prospectus because of many levels. Sainsbury’s organizational culture: Sainsbury is a varied company and I don’t feel it can safely be placed into any of these categories, but I will say it’s a mixture between Role culture and Task culture. Since Sainsbury is a big organization there can be many things at once, I feel Sainsbury has taken the best attributes of the two and made their own Sainsbury’s culture. This includes: – i. Very tall and board structure but with many web links. ii. Strict communication channels low down. iii. Jobs, not people lowdown (but they do get their say when needed). iv. Jobs suited to the task in the central range. . Communication between departments by knowledgeable workers (not manual laborers). vi. Formal communication going up the hierarchy. All these are associated with the two cultures and so Sainsbury can’t be defined to one group. Since Human culture is a mixture of hundreds of separate culture trying to produce the best of all words. In my opinion Sainsbury’s would more suite the Role culture since the formal structure also emphasizes this by adding a rigid structure you add a formality quality or a freedom associated with the person, thus the job is more than the employee, which is the role culture. These two also dictate the management style because Role culture has important job. There is communication with the job not the person, this is autocratic because the person has no say. The structure means there is a formality also so Sainsbury is a formal business and this means all jobs are done in formal and this should increase production by having quick workers who don’t have to think. All the difference influences each other because they all have an effect on certain aspects of the company. They all knock on to each other and manipulate the finer points of each. Tesco organizational culture: Tesco’s corporate culture can be determined from its corporate responsibility statements, which describe its core values and core ideologies as well as some aspects of cultural artifacts. Tesco’s stated core priorities include: i. Ensuring community, corporate responsibility and sustainability are at the heart of our business. ii. Being a good neighbor and being responsible, fair and honest. iii. Considering our social, economic and environmental impact as we make our decisions. (Tesco, 2008) These values have had a significant impact on the way in which Tesco does business, as well as its inancial performance. For example, its expansion into California was designed to be not only profitable, but also socially responsible. As in the United Kingdom, American inner cities have a food supply problem wherein there are few large supermarkets and the smaller supermarkets do not have an adequate supply of fresh foods, including fruits, vegetables and proteins. How the relationships structure and culture can impact Sainsbury and Tesco’s performance: Tesco’s organisational structure is a hierarchical structure. In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted as messages pass from one level to another means that the staff at the bottom level receive a slightly a different message than the message they intent to receive it. Many people’s have to be consulted before a decision is made so the company is slow in responding to changes and challenges. This means they cannot provides quick services to their customers and it is going to affect in terms of sales and profit but there is an advantage that if everybody is consulted they will come out with the best results. In hierarchical structure there are specific functional areas and job roles. The employees can be easily identified and given training so they can provide good services to their customers. Hierarchical structure has good delegations because they are many people’s with specialised skills are working here so they can easily assign their subordinates for a particular task. The span of control is less than the flat structures. In hierarchical structures they have good promotion prospectus so the staff are motivated and they provides good services to their customers. I think that the impact of the organizational structure has an excellent impact on Sainsbury due to the staff of Sainsbury working hard and being highly motivated in the work that they do, and the customer service that they provide for the customers that shop at Sainsbury. This is due to the human resources function of Sainsbury recruiting staff that they feel is suitable to work at Sainsbury, this could be due to the experience, qualifications, and availability of the member of staff working at Sainsbury. The finance function helps Sainsbury by the accountants keeping accounts up to date, this is an advantage because this has an impact on Sainsbury by enabling it to see if the financial factors of Sainsbury are improving or declining, and if new targets should be set, and if new objectives should be made. The marketing function has an impact on Sainsbury by the way that it helps the supermarket grow bigger by the advertisement campaigns it launches to make potential customers of Sainsbury notice what Sainsbury has to offer them. Task2: Understand different approaches to management and leadership. P2. : Compare the effectiveness of different leadership style in different organizations. In the below we discuss about various type of management style: Scientific management: According to Fredrick Winslow Taylor, â€Å"Scientific management means knowing exactly what you want men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and the cheapest way. † Classical administration: Henri Fayo l was a French industrialist, according to him, the idea that all organizations could be structured managed according to certain rational principle. Bureaucracy: An organization structured on classical lines is often identified as a bureaucracy. Human relations approach: The human relations approach emphasised the importance of human attitudes, values and relationships for the efficient and effective functioning of work organizations. Systems approach: Systems approach described as which consists of interdependent parts. Every system has a boundary which defines what it is ‘inside’ what is ‘outside’ the system. Contingency approach: The contingency approach to organization developed as a reaction to the idea that there are universal principles for designing organization, motivating staff and others. In the below we discuss about some function of management: Planning: This essentially means looking to the future. It involves selecting the ends which the organization wishes to achieve. Organizing: The work to be done must be divided and structured into task and jobs. Commanding: Fayol called this maintaining activity among the personal. Co-ordination: this is the task of harmonizing the activities of individuals and groups within the organization. Controlling: This is the task of monitoring the activities of individual and groups. P2. : Explain how organizational theory underpins the practice of management In the below we discuss about various managerial role: Interpersonal Roles: Interpersonal roles process and outlined three basic roles. Those are: i. Figurehead. ii. Leader. iii. Liaison. Informational role: A manager is likely to have a wider network of contacts within and outside the organization than his subordinates. So he is the best parson to gather and spread information. Decisional roles: The manager’s formal authority and access to information put him in a strong position to take decisions. In the below we discuss about nature of managerial authority: Power: Power is the ability to do something or get others to do it. Authority: Authority is the right to do something or to get others to do it. Responsibility: Responsibility is the liability of a person to be called to account for the way he was exercised the authority given to him. Delegation: Delegation is the process whereby superior A gives subordinate B authority over a defined area which falls within the scope of A’s own authority. P2. 3: Evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations. Opportunist: The opportunist action-logic is aimed at controlling their environment in order to survive. Typically development has been blocked by a legacy of mistrust, egocentrism and manipulativeness. The title for this action-logic denotes a tendency to focus on personal wins and to see relationships as opportunities to be exploited. From the opportunist action-logic, the world is highly competitive. Only the fittest individuals survive and, since the opportunist assumes everybody else is also operating from this frame of reference, competition rather than collaboration is the only viable course of action. Diplomat: Moving away from the â€Å"anything-goes-that-serves-me† framework of the Opportunist, Diplomats are aware of group strength over individual power. Thus, they seek to belong to established groups which may be based on kinship, club, church or profession. Since power comes from affiliation with others, rules and social norms are followed to seek approval and safeguard status as a group member. Achiever: Leaders who have developed this action-logic can be both challenging and supportive, creating a positive atmosphere both inside the team and external to the team. They represent approximately 30% of the general managerial population and are tightly focused on deliverables. People whose developmental focus is on the Achiever action-logic have a more complex and integrated understanding of the world than do managers who display the previous three action logics. Strategist: At 4% of leaders, people who have developed to this action-logic are likely to be found in less conventional settings. If they have survived life in the Public service, they are likely to have developed a reputation as transformational leaders. They distinguish themselves from Individualists through their focus on organizational constraints and perceptions, which they treat as discussible and transformable. Transformational: Transformational leadership occurs when the leader and the follower elevates one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Carlson (1996) points out that Burns felt that leadership theories developed up to the mid-seventies were lacking ethical/moral dimensions so he elaborated on his exchange theory which maintains that followers play a crucial role in the definition of leadership. This theory is made up of power relations and entails bargaining, trading and compromise among leaders and followers. Management styles and leadership used in Tesco’s: Tesco’s tend to use autocratic because the company needs too or the e tasks won’t be carried out within the business, also decisions need to be made quickly or they won’t be done for example a task that is set for a shelf filler to put the milk out but hasn’t been told to put the milk out because the management are still deciding who’s going to put what out, so the milk would be still sat in the storage room and the customers cant buy it. So if the management didn’t use autocratic then Tesco’s wouldn’t be run sufficiently. Tesco also uses management by objectives. They use this because they state to each employee in their appraisals what their objectives are for a certain period. Also each manager is set objectives by their line manager for their team for example the sales team’s objective that has been set is to increase the amount of customers using Tesco by 25%. The way in which Tesco is structured and managed. (Management at Tesco. † 123HelpMe. com. 05 Jan 2012 . ) Management styles and leadership used in Sainsbury’s: If a company adopts the consultative style, then the person may well set the objectives and this would mean a lesser extent of pushing to achieve objectives. In my opinion Sainsbury uses a mixture of two types of management style. First being autocratic means the objectives would be set up and to a good standard; they will want the most work out of their subordinates, to gain maximum value. For the key areas of operations: Sainsbury is using autocratic management style, for setting its objectives, policies at top management level. They also use democratic management style. These would be set to gain maximum revenue they would want this and strive to get this because this style is associated with the managerial levels and will mean they get bonuses. For overall working of the organization at middle management levels and lower management levels, the style of Sainsbury is democratic, because the area of operations is widely decentralized and for the implementation of policies in three different segments, policies should be consulted with the local personal, which are specially appointed for this purpose. As they know the inner constraints, strengths of that particular segment. Task3: Understand ways of using motivational theories in organization. P3. 1: Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in periods of change. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs: The basis of Maslow's theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be addressed. Per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly. These needs were dubbed â€Å"deficiency needs. † While a person is motivated to fulfill these basal desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually self-actualization. The satisfaction of these needs is quite healthy. While preventing their gratification makes us ill or act evilly. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Chart As a result, for adequate workplace motivation, it is important that leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslow's model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be atisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called ‘Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or ‘Maslow's Needs Triangle', when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Herzberg’s theory: Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include: – Company policy and administration Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration – Quality of supervision – Quality of inter-personal relations – Working conditions – Feelings of job security Motivator Factors Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include: – Status – Opportunity for advancement – Gaining recognition – Responsibility – Challenging / stimulating work Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job McGregor’s theory X and Y: Theory X Theory X assumes that the average person: †¢Disl ikes work and attempts to avoid it. †¢Has no ambition, wants no responsibility, and would rather follow than lead. †¢Is self-centered and therefore does not care about organizational goals. †¢Resists change. †¢Is gullible and not particularly intelligent. Essentially, Theory X assumes that people work only for money and security. Theory Y The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best be motivated. Theory Y makes the following general assumptions: †¢Work can be as natural as play and rest. †¢People will be self-directed to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them. †¢People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that address higher needs such as self-fulfillment. †¢Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility. †¢Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population. Vroom and Expectancy theories: Essentially, expectancy theory states that the strength of an individual’s motivation to do something will depend on the extent to which he expects the result of his efforts, if successfully achieved, to contribute towards his personal needs or goals. Maccoby, Mccrac and costa: There is relative consensus on a five-factor structure of personality, based on a bipolar taxonomy of underlying traits, which is supported by factor analyses of extensive lists of trait adjectives. The five broad personality dimensions are commonly labeled extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness. It should be noted that these dimensions are not types, meaning that personality is made up of scores on the five dimensions. Motivation and performance: Motivation, as it most nearly concerns the manager, is the controlling of the work environment and the offering of rewards in such a way as to encourage extra performance from employees. Rewards and incentives: A reward is a token (monetary or otherwise) given to an individual or team in recognition of some contribution or success. An incentive is the offer or promise of a reward for contribution or success, designed to motivate the individual or team to behave in such a way as to earn it. Motivation and manager: Managers are constantly searching for ways to create a motivational environment where associates (employees) to work at their optimal levels to accomplish company objectives. Workplace motivators include both monetary and non-monetary incentives. Monetary and Non-monetary rewards: The purpose of monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through money. Monetary incentives include profit sharing, project bonuses, stock options and warrants, scheduled bonuses (e. g. , Christmas and performance-linked), and additional paid vacation time. Traditionally, these have helped maintain a positive motivational environment for associate. The purpose of non-monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through opportunities. Non-monetary incentives include flexible work hours, training, pleasant work environment, and sabbaticals. P3. 2: Compare the application of different motivational theories within the work place. Leadership in organization: This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007, p3) definition — Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Managers and leaders: Influence is the process by which an individual or group exercises power to determine or modify the behavior of others. Leadership traits: People who believe that leaders are born are likely to buy into the Traits Theory. This theory basically centers itself on the leader. What are the qualities of a leader? Now if you look at the different leaders of the world, companies or armies they all carry certain traits. It is believed that if one carries these characteristics then one is likely to become a leader. So, this theory defines what are the qualities that a leader should posses rather than leadership. If one is a leader then these leadership traits should be present. Management style: Managers have to perform many roles in an organization and how they handle various situations will depend on their style of management. There are two sharply contrasting styles that will be broken down into smaller subsets later: oAutocratic oPermissive Each style has its own characteristics: Autocratic: Leader makes all decisions unilaterally. Permissive: Leader permits subordinates to take part in decision making and also gives them a considerable degree of autonomy in completing routine work activities. Contingency approach: The Contingency Theory takes in consideration the weaknesses of the previous theories. Since leadership functions in a dynamic situation, it is only logical that different styles and traits will work in different situations. The Contingency Theory takes into consideration the context where leadership is exercised. P3. 3: Evaluate the usefulness of a Motivation theory for managers. Leadership and successful change in organizations: Pluralistic: inclusive enough consistent with the needs of pluralistic leadership. Such organizations emphasize hierarchy, authority and structure over participation and inclusiveness. Pluralistic leadership results in diversity and diversity results in pluralistic leadership (Bass, 1990; Millman and Kanter, 1986). Pluralistic leadership is very consistent with notions of participation of all in the leadership decisions and the understanding of multiple perspectives within the organization and outside it (Kezar, 2000). Transformational: It depends on two main points of view: – The theoretical, and – The applied Theoretical definitions come from those that study leadership, who have the formal qualifications to write long dissertations on the subject. This body of knowledge is fantastic for grounding in the subject and to get into the depth of the potential implications, especially when it comes to the morals and ethics department. The applied is the interpretation, and then applied action in a specific field of endeavor. We’ll use the personal, organizational, and global contexts for this purpose. You will have your own applied experience, or not, depending on where you are on your own personal Transformational Leadership journey. Communications: The closest definition of a communication leader is Gramsci’s definition of the organic intellectual – which Gramsci essentially sees as a leader. Gramsci sees in the intellectual not only as a leader but also as a poet, thinker, reader and activist. Sainsbury’s motivational theories: Sainsbury agree that employees are their most important assets and need to be treated fairly. The good performance of employee’s management s has an effect on the organization's success, in terms of profitability. Sainsbury give out financial rewords to most people who complete the training programme. Training is designed to keep employees motivated and is convinced to complete their training by rewarding them with financial gain. Motivation comprises of the need for employees and controls their action. Using motivation techniques can improve productivity and customer service. Also employee satisfaction leads to good service that leads to customer satisfaction. Maslows- Hierarchy of needs This theory is based on meeting staff needs with in the workplace and suggests that meeting their needs can lead to be fill are: – Self- fulfillment- researching your full potential Self-esteem needs- status and recognition, achievement and independence Social needs- love, friendship, a sense of belonging part of a team Safety needs- protection against danger, fair treatment, job security Physiological needs- food, rest and shelter Mc Gregor- Theory x and theory y They are two types of main types of managers. Theory x managers tend to have the point of view that the average dislikes and will try to avoid it. Therefore the managers must control direct and punish them to get them to work towards business objectives. Theory y suggests that the ordinary person does not dislike work; it all depends on the conditions in which the work takes place. If people are committed to objectives, they will be motivated towards achieving them the biggest motivation factor is the personal satisfaction of completing the job. (â€Å"A Report on Sainsbury's Resource Management. † 123HelpMe. com. 5 Jan 2012 . Tesco motivational theories: Tesco is Britain’s largest retailer. It now has over 2,200 stores. As well as food, it also sells other products such as insurance and banking. To support growth, Tesco needs staffs who are motivated. It achieves this by increasing their knowledge, skills and job satisfaction through training and reward systems. Needs: Self-fulfill: Tesco offers Personal Developme nt Plans, recognition of skills and talents, opportunity for promotion and career progression programmed. Career discussions feed into Tesco’s Talent Planning meetings. The Options fast-track management programmed provides a route for capable staff to reach higher levels. Self-esteem: Tesco values emphasize self-respect and respect for others and praise for hard work, its self assessment, 360 degree feedback and appraisal system help to recognize individuals’ contributions and importance and celebrate achievement. Social needs: Tesco promotes team and group working at various levels; The Company ‘Steering Wheel’ assesses individual and group work and enables store staff to work as a team. Working conditions and a home-from-home ethos encourages long service. Basic/physical needs Security needs: Tesco provides the security of formal contracts of employment as well as pension and sickness schemes and the option to join a union to give people a sense of belonging. It ensures health and safety in the workplace. Basic/physical needs: This would include a place of work, regular monthly pay and essential facilities such as a restaurant or lockers for personal belongings. Tesco provides motivation for its staff through many different routes. Reviews and personal development plans ensure that employees are able to develop and grow. This benefits both staff and the business. (The Times 100 Edition 15 | www. hetimes100. co. uk) EDITION Task 4: Understand mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations. P4. 1: Explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations. Groups: Groups in business organizations are, in effect, sub-organizations and they require management for controlled performance of collective goals, not only their own collective goals, but those of the business organization as a whole. Definition of group is ‘A group is any collection of people who perceive them to be a group’. Informal group and formal group: Informal groups will invariably be present in any organization. Informal groups include workplace cliques and networks of people who regularly get together to exchange information, groups of mates who socialize outside work and so on. Formal groups, put together by the organization, will have formal structure and a function for which they are held responsible, they are task oriented and become teams. Team: A team is a formal group established to achieve particular objectives. Purpose of teams: i. Team allows the performance of tasks. ii. Team encourages exchange of knowledge and ideas or creation of new ideas. iii. The power of the team over individual behavior can be both: control and motivator. Selecting team members: A manager is able to select team members, he or she shuld aim to match some requirement: i. Specialist skills and knowledge. ii. Experience. iii. Political power in the organization. iv. Access to resources, v. Competence. Team roles: RM Bellbin researched business-game teams at the Carnegie Institute of technology. He developed a picture of the character-mix in team, which many people fine a useful guide to team selection and management. Bellbin suggests effective team is made following eight roles: i. The Co-coordinator. ii. The shaper. iii. The plant. iv The monitor and evaluator. . The resource investigator. vi. The implementer. vii. The team worker. Viii. The finisher. Multi-disciplinary teams: Multi-disciplinary teams bring together individuals with different skills and specialism’s, so that their skills, experience and knowledge can be pooled or exchanged. Teambuilding: The team building goal in this learning journey is to help participants devel op increased awareness of team dynamics, practical skills for maximizing team performance, and developing a belief in the power of teamwork. Team building assists participants in planning specific improvements in the way the team operates. Participants will gain an integrated set of skills that can be applied anytime and anywhere, while enhancing their team performance, leadership abilities, and team unity. The result of applying these skills will be serious TEAMWORK – not teamwork in the ordinary sense, but something stronger, more committed, more productive, and more personal. Team identity: A manager may be able to increase his work groups sense of itself as a team by any or all the following means: i. Giving the team a name. ii. Giving team a badge or uniform. iii. Expressing the team’s self-image. iv. Building a team mythology. Commitment to shared belief: All team members must agree on what the team is trying to accomplish. Teams work much harder if members have a say in team goals and focus. Having team members discuss and decide on team goals would foster this sense of team commitment. P4. 2: Discuss factors that may promote or inhabit the development of effective teamwork in organizations. Group norms: The rules of behavior that are part of the ideology of the group. Norms tend to reflect the values of the group and specify those actions that are proper and those that are inappropriate, as well as rewards for adherence and the punishment for conformity. Group decision-making behavior: As we noted, empowerment involves groups in decision-making. This can be having benefited where: i. Pooling skills, information and ideas. ii. Participation in the decision-making process makes the discussion acceptable of the group. Dysfunctional team: Dysfunctional is defined as â€Å"abnormal or unhealthy interpersonal behavior or interaction within a group†. Most definitions state that a team is dysfunctional when individuals strive to conform to the prevailing thought processes or decisions within the group, at the expense of feelings of individual responsibility or personal views. Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is generally defined as â€Å"the resultant of all forces acting on all the members to remain in the group† (Cartwright, 1968, p. 91). Group cohesiveness is one of the essential concepts for understanding group dynamics (Zander, 1979) studied for its conceptual similarity with teamwork. P4. 3: Evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organization. Technology: Technology teams share a common goal: all members are dedicated to helping writing project site leadership meet local needs and priorities through the wise integration and implementation of technology. But while these tech teams generally have a similar purpose, the ways in which writing project sites have gone about establishing and using their technology teams are as nuanced as the sites themselves. Communication: One way to start developing a communications strategy is to look at the nature of the different kinds of work the team will be doing and what kind of communication is needed to support that work. There is a continuum which describes how individuals (or sub-groups) on the team are working from autonomously to interdependently. For example, there may be some tasks unique to a specific country which team members can do on their own without interacting with anyone else on the team. Other product-related projects may require more collaboration among team members in different parts of the region. Change: All these changes in organizations have changed how teams are formed and how they operate. Teams have changed: From fixed team membership all team members drawn from within the organization team members are dedicated 100% to the team team members are co-located organizationally and geographically teams have a fixed starting and ending point eams are managed by a single manager To shifting team membership team members can include people from outside the organization (clients, collaborators) most people are members of multiple teams team members are distributed organizationally and geographically teams form and reform continuously teams have multiple reporting relationships with different parts of the organizatio n at different times Network and virtual teams: The nature of teams has changed significantly because of changes in organizations and the nature of the work they do. Organizations have become more distributed across geography and across industries. Relationships between people inside an organization and those previously considered outside (customers, suppliers, managers of collaborating organizations, other stakeholders) are becoming more important. Organizations have discovered the value of collaborative work. There is a new emphasis on knowledge management – harvesting the learning of the experience of members of the organization so that it is available to the whole organization. Global and cross-culture teams: Cross-cultural training usually occurs as an integral component of training that's designed primarily to attain a broader objective. Two of GROVEWELL's Global Leadership Programs provide examples. †¢Influencing Colleagues across Organizational Units & Mindsets is primarily about influencing colleagues within global organizations, but is infused with the intercultural perspective. †¢Working Effectively on International Projects is primarily for the managers and staff of global projects; it, too, is infused with the intercultural perspective. Effective teamwork in Sainsbury: General theories of work design suggest that groups can humanize work with group tasks designed to create meaningful work. Team working is associated with higher job satisfaction according to job characteristics and participative management theories. The variety of tasks in teams encourages workers to learn and use different skills and rotate between jobs to reduce the boredom of repetitive work. This enables team members to share a sense of collective responsibility for work in their area and to develop the mix of skills necessary for effective work teams who share both identification with a common task and mutual beliefs. Teams also make possible employee participation in goal setting, thereby enhancing intrinsic motivation for team members. www. sainsburys. co. uk J Sainsbury plc Annual Report and Financial Statements 2005 accessed through www. sainsburys. co. uk) Effective teamwork in Tesco: We treat people how we like to be treated. We want our people to enjoy working at Tesco. Our people do a great job each and every day by giving our customers the best possible shopping trip. By creating an open e nvironment of trust and respect, our people feel supported, they share their knowledge and experience and work hard to give our customers great service. We support our people, trusting in their ability to deliver while helping them to reach their full potential. We encourage our people to learn on the job and take responsibility from day one. Giving our people an opportunity to get on in their careers is very important. With the increasing breadth of the Tesco business, our people have a great opportunity to develop their skills and experience across new product areas, services and countries. Every year, we build our plans for the year around our People Promises. We want all of our people across all of our markets to: †¢ be treated with respect; †¢ have an opportunity to get on; †¢ have a manager who helps them; and †¢ have an interesting job. It’s through our People Promises and our benefits package that we are proud to say that our people stay with us for a long time. Around half of our Director population has at least 12 years’ service. Effective teamwork in Asda: Asda changes Norman outlines – in the way people work together and communicate with each other – are more complex. The company's goal is to become a genuine leader in fresh foods and clothing – making the George brand a ‘real brand', second in the UK to Marks & Spencer's St Michael – and also to create an ‘organization which is the preferred place to work', offering customer service ‘with a personality derived from the heart of the company'. One change has, accordingly, been in the approach to recruitment, which now aims to seek out people for the stores who really do want to serve the customers and who genuinely like selling. There is no point, he remarks, in employing people who won't like the ‘Asda Way of Working'. This is the name given to the new approach, intended to transform the old culture, which had grown autocratic and slow-moving, to one where all members of Asda feel involved in improving the business – the equivalent, within the context of a corporation, of market-stallholders, who run their own show, and who engage actively with their customers. (http://www. managementtoday. co. uk/news/410110/UK-ASDAS-OPEN-PLAN Bibliography: Reference: 1. HNC, HND BTEC Business Course Book, Organization behavior, Unit-3, first edition September 2000, publishing BPP, ISBN 0 7517 70337.